Fundamentals of renewable energy processes

Front Cover

Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes

Copyright Page

Table of Content

Foreword to the Third Edition

Foreword to the Second Edition

Foreword to the First Edition

Acknowledgements

Generalites

1.1 Units and Constants

1.2 Energy and Utility

1.3 Conservation of Energy

1.4 Planetary Energy Balance

1.5 The Energy Utilization Rate

1.6 The Population Explosion

1.7 The Market Penetration Function

1.8 Planetary Energy Resources

1.8.1 Mineral Assets

1.9 Energy Utilization

1.10 The Efficiency Question

1.11 The Ecology Question

1.11.1 Biological

1.11.2 Mineral

1.11.3 Subterranean

1.11.4 Oceanic

1.12 Financing

1.13 The Cost of Electricity

References

Part I

Heat Engines

A Minimum of Thermodynamics and of the Kinetic Theory of Gases

2.1 The Motion of Molecules

2.1.1 Temperature

2.1.2 The Perfect-Gas Law

2.1.3 Internal Energy

2.1.4 Specific Heat at Constant Volume

2.1.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

2.1.6 The Pressure-Volume Work

2.1.7 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

2.1.8 Degrees of Freedom

2.2 Manipulating Confined Gases (Closed Systems)

2.2.1 Adiabatic Processes

2.2.1.1 Abrupt Compression

2.2.1.2 Gradual Compression

2.2.1.3 p-V Diagrams

2.2.1.4 Polytropic Law

2.2.1.5 Work Done Under Adiabatic Expansion (Close System)

2.2.2 Isothermal Processes

2.2.2.1 Functions of State

2.3 Manipulating Flowing Gases (Open Systems)

2.3.1 Enthalpy

2.3.2 Turbines

2.3.2.1 Isentropic Processes

2.4 Entropy and Lossy Systems

2.4.1 Changes in Entropy

2.4.2 Reversibility

2.4.3 Causes of Irreversibility

2.4.3.1 Friction

2.4.3.2 Heat Transfer Across Temperature Differences (Heat Transfer by Conduction)

2.4.3.3 Unrestrained Compression, Expansion of a Gas

2.4.4 Negentropy.

2.5 Distribution Functions

2.5.1 How to Plot Statistics

2.5.2 Maxwellian Distribution

2.5.3 Fermi-Dirac Distribution

2.6 Boltzmann's Law

2.7 Phases of a Pure Substance

2.8 Symbology

References

Mechanical Heat Engines

3.1 Heats of Combustion

3.2 Carnot Efficiency

3.3 Engine Types

3.4 The Otto Engine

3.4.1 The Efficiency of an Otto Engine

3.4.2 Using the T-s Diagram

3.4.3 Improving the Efficiency of the Otto Engine

3.5 Gasoline

3.5.1 Heat of Combustion

3.5.2 Antiknock Characteristics

3.6 Knocking

3.7 Rankine Cycle

3.7.1 The Boiling of Water

3.7.2 The Steam Engine

3.7.3 And now?

3.8 The Brayton Cycle

3.9 Combined Cycles

3.10 Hybrid Engines for Automobiles

3.11 The Stirling Engine

3.11.1 The Kinematic Stirling Engine

3.11.1.1 The Alpha Stirling Engine

3.11.1.2 The Beta Stirling Engine

3.11.1.3 The Implementation of the Kinematic Stirling

3.11.2 The Free-piston Stirling Engine

References

Ocean Thermal Energy Converters

4.1 Introduction

4.2 OTEC Configurations

4.3 OTEC Efficiency

4.4 OTEC Design

4.5 Heat Exchangers

4.6 Siting

References

Thermoelectricity

5.1 Experimental Observations

5.2 Thermoelectric Thermometers

5.3 The Thermoelectric Generator

5.4 Figure of Merit of a Material

5.5 The Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz Law

5.6 Thermal Conductivity in Solids

5.7 Seebeck Coefficient of Semiconductors

5.8 Performance of Thermoelectric Materials

5.9 Some Applications of Thermoelectric Generators

5.10 Design of a Thermoelectric Generator

5.11 Thermoelectric Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

5.11.1 Design Using an Existing Thermocouple

5.11.2 Design Based on Given Semiconductors

5.12 Temperature Dependence

5.13 Battery Architecture

5.14 The Physics of Thermoelectricity

5.14.1 The Seebeck Effect.

5.14.2 The Peltier Effect

5.14.3 The Thomson Effect

5.14.4 Kelvin's Relations

5.15 Directions and Signs

5.16 Appendix

References

Thermionics

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Thermionic Emission

6.3 Electron Transport

6.3.1 The Child-Langmuir Law

6.4 Lossless Diodes with Space Charge Neutralization

6.4.1 Interelectrode Potentials

6.4.2 V-J Characteristics

6.4.3 The Open-Circuit Voltage

6.4.4 Maximum Power Output

6.5 Losses in Vacuum Diodes with No Space Charge

6.5.1 Efficiency

6.5.2 Radiation Losses

6.5.2.1 Radiation of Heat

6.5.2.2 Efficiency with Radiation Losses Only

6.5.3 Excess Electron Energy

6.5.4 Heat Conduction

6.5.5 Lead Resistance

6.6 Real Vacuum-Diodes

6.7 Vapor Diodes

6.7.1 Cesium Adsorption

6.7.2 Contact Ionization

6.7.3 Thermionic Ion Emission

6.7.4 Space Charge Neutralization Conditions

6.7.5 More V-J Characteristics

6.8 High-Pressure Diodes

References

AMTECMuch of this chapter is based on the article by Cole (1983)

7.1 Operating Principle

7.2 Vapor Pressure

7.3 Pressure Drop in the Sodium Vapor Column

7.4 Mean Free Path of Sodium Ions

7.5 Characteristics of an AMTEC

7.6 Efficiency

7.7 Thermodynamics of an AMTEC

References

Radio-Noise Generators

8.1 Sole Section

References

Part II

The World of Hydrogen

Fuel Cells

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Voltaic Cells

9.3 Fuel Cell Classification

9.3.1 Temperature of Operation

9.3.2 State of the Electrolyte

9.3.3 Type of Fuel

9.3.4 Chemical Nature of the Electrolyte

9.4 Fuel Cell Reactions

9.4.1 Alkaline Electrolytes

9.4.2 Acid Electrolytes

9.4.3 Molten Carbonate Electrolytes

9.4.4 Ceramic Electrolytes

9.4.5 Methanol Fuel Cells

9.4.6 Formic Acid Fuel Cells

9.5 Typical Fuel Cell Configurations

9.5.1 Demonstration Fuel Cell (KOH).

9.5.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)

9.5.2.1 A Fuel Cell Battery (Engelhard)

9.5.2.2 First-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant

9.5.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

9.5.3.1 Second-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant

9.5.4 Ceramic Fuel Cells (SOFC)

9.5.4.1 Third-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant

9.5.4.2 High Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells

9.5.4.3 Low Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells

9.5.5 Solid-Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells

9.5.5.1 Cell Construction

9.5.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

9.5.7 Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFC)

9.5.8 Solid Acid Fuel Cells (SAFC)

9.5.9 Metallic Fuel Cells-Zinc-Air Fuel Cells

9.6 Fuel Cell Applications

9.6.1 Stationary Power Plants

9.6.2 Automotive Power Plants

9.6.3 Other Applications

9.7 The Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells

9.7.1 Heat of Combustion

9.7.2 Free Energy

9.7.3 Efficiency of Reversible Fuel Cells

9.7.4 Effects of Pressure and Temperature on the Enthalpy[-12pt] and Free Energy Changes of a Reaction

9.7.4.1 Enthalpy Dependence on Temperature

9.7.4.2 Enthalpy Dependence on Pressure

9.7.4.3 Free Energy Dependence on Temperature

9.7.4.4 Free Energy Dependence on Pressure

9.7.4.5 The Nernst Equation

9.7.4.6 Voltage Dependence on Temperature

9.8 Performance of Real Fuel Cells

9.8.1 Current Delivered by a Fuel Cell

9.8.2 Efficiency of Practical Fuel Cells

9.8.3 V-I Characteristics of Fuel Cells

9.8.3.1 Empirically Derived Characteristics

9.8.3.2 Scaling Fuel Cells

9.8.3.3 More Complete Empirical Characteristics of Fuel Cells

9.8.4 Open-circuit Voltage

9.8.5 Reaction Kinetics

9.8.5.1 Reaction Rates

9.8.5.2 Activation Energy

9.8.5.3 Catalysis

9.8.6 The Butler-Volmer Equation

9.8.6.1 Exchange Currents

9.8.7 Transport Losses

9.8.8 Heat Dissipation by Fuel Cells.

9.8.8.1 Heat Removal from Fuel Cells

References

Hydrogen Production

10.1 Generalities

10.2 Chemical Production of Hydrogen

10.2.1 Historical

10.2.2 Metal-Water Hydrogen Production

10.2.3 Large-scale Hydrogen Production

10.2.3.1 Partial Oxidation

10.2.3.2 Steam Reforming

10.2.3.3 Thermal Decomposition

10.2.3.4 Syngas

10.2.3.5 Shift Reaction

10.2.3.6 Methanation

10.2.3.7 Methanol

10.2.3.8 Syn-crude

10.2.4 Hydrogen Purification

10.2.4.1 Desulfurization

10.2.4.2 CO2 Removal

10.2.4.3 CO Removal and Hydrogen Extraction

10.2.4.4 Hydrogen Production Plants

10.2.5 Compact Fuel Processors

10.2.5.1 Formic Acid

10.3 Electrolytic Hydrogen

10.3.1 Introduction

10.3.2 Electrolyzer Configurations

10.3.2.1 Liquid Electrolyte Electrolyzers

10.3.2.2 Solid-Polymer Electrolyte Electrolyzers

10.3.2.3 Ceramic Electrolyte Electrolyzers

10.3.2.4 High Efficiency Steam Electrolyzers

10.3.3 Efficiency of Electrolyzers

10.3.4 Concentration-Differential Electrolyzers

10.3.5 Electrolytic Hydrogen Compression

10.4 Thermolytic Hydrogen

10.4.1 Direct Dissociation of Water

10.4.2 Chemical Dissociation of Water

10.4.2.1 Mercury-hydrobromic acid cycle

10.4.2.2 Barium chromate cycle

10.4.2.3 Sulfur-iodine cycle

10.5 Photolytic Hydrogen

10.5.1 Generalities

10.5.2 Solar Photolysis

10.6 Photobiologic Hydrogen Production

References

Hydrogen Storage

11.1 Introduction

11.1.1 DOE Targets for Automotive Hydrogen Storage

11.2 Compressed Gas

11.3 Cryogenic Hydrogen

11.4 Storage of Hydrogen by Adsorption

11.5 Storage of Hydrogen in Chemical Compounds

11.5.1 Generalities

11.5.2 Hydrogen Carriers

11.5.3 Water Plus a Reducing Substance

11.5.4 Formic Acid

11.5.5 Metal Hydrides

11.5.5.1 Characteristics of Hydride Materials.