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Does the celebrated harmonic series diverge or converge? Discover a proof using the integral test. Then generalize to define an entire class of series called p-series, and prove a theorem showing when they converge. Close with the sum of the harmonic series, the fascinating Euler-Mascheroni constant, which is not known to be rational or irrational.
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Put your precalculus skills to use by splitting up complicated algebraic expressions to make them easier to integrate. Learn how to deal with linear factors, repeated linear factors, and irreducible quadratic factors. Finally, apply these techniques to the solution of the logistic differential equation.
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The inverse of the natural logarithmic function is the exponential function, perhaps the most important function in all of calculus. Discover that this function has an amazing property: It is its own derivative! Also see the connection between the exponential function and the bell-shaped curve in probability.
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Counting problems occur frequently in real life, from the possible batting lineups on a baseball team to the different ways of organizing a committee. Use concepts you've learned in the series to distinguish between permutations and combinations and provide precise counts for each.
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The graphs of sine and cosine functions form a distinctive wave-like pattern. Experiment with functions that have additional terms, and see how these change the period, amplitude, and phase of the waves. Such behavior occurs throughout nature and led to the discovery of rapidly rotating stars called pulsars in 1967.
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Review parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas, focusing on how calculus deepens our understanding of these shapes. First, look at parabolas and arc length computation. Then turn to ellipses, their formulas, and the concept of eccentricity. Next, examine hyperbolas. End by looking ahead to parametric equations.
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Discover one of the most useful of the differentiation rules, the chain rule, which allows you to find the derivative of a composite of two functions. Explore different examples of this technique, including a problem from physics that involves the motion of a pendulum.
8) Understanding Calculus II: Problems, Solutions, and Tips: Differential Equations - Growth and Decay
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In the first of three episodes on differential equations, learn various techniques for solving these very useful equations, including separation of variables and Euler's method, which is the simplest numerical technique for finding approximate solutions. Then look at growth and decay models, with two intriguing applications.
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Explore integrals of trigonometric functions, finding that they are often easy to evaluate if either sine or cosine occurs to an odd power. If both are raised to an even power, you must resort to half-angle trigonometric formulas. Then look at products of tangents and secants, which also divide into easy and hard cases.
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In a final application, locate a position on the surface of the earth with a two-dimensional version of GPS technology. Then close by finding the tangent line to a parabola, thereby solving a problem in differential calculus and witnessing how precalculus paves the way for the next big mathematical adventure.
11) Understanding Calculus: Problems, Solutions, and Tips: Antiderivatives and Basic Integration Rules
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Up until now, you've calculated a derivative based on a given function. Discover how to reverse the procedure and determine the function based on the derivative. This approach is known as obtaining the antiderivative, or integration. Also learn the notation for integration.
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Trigonometric functions need not be confined to acute angles in right triangles; they apply to virtually any angle. Using the coordinate plane, learn to calculate trigonometric values for arbitrary angles. Also see how a table of common angles and their trigonometric values has wide application.
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Take a different mathematical approach to graphing: polar coordinates. With this system, a point's location is specified by its distance from the origin and the angle it makes with the positive x axis. Polar coordinates are surprisingly useful for many applications, including writing the formula for a valentine heart!
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Continue your exploration of the power of integral calculus. First, review arc length computations. Then, calculate the areas of surfaces of revolution. Close by surveying the concept of work, answering questions such as, how much work does it take to lift an object from Earth's surface to 800 miles in space?
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Extend the use of the logarithmic and exponential functions to bases other than e, exploiting this approach to solve a problem in radioactive decay. Also learn to find the derivatives of such functions, and see how e emerges in other mathematical contexts, including the formula for continuous compound interest.
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Try out techniques for approximating a function with a polynomial. The first example shows how to construct the first-degree Maclaurin polynomial for the exponential function. These polynomials are a special case of Taylor polynomials, which you investigate along with Taylor's theorem.
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Continue your survey of conic sections by looking at ellipses and hyperbolas, studying their standard equations and probing a few of their many applications. For example, calculate the dimensions of the US Capitol's "whispering gallery," an ellipse-shaped room with fascinating acoustical properties.
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Discover how functions can be combined in various ways, including addition, multiplication, and composition. A special case of composition is the inverse function, which has important applications. One way to recognize inverse functions is on a graph, where the function and its inverse form mirror images across the line y = x.
19) Understanding Multivariable Calculus: Problems, Solutions, and Tips: Applications of Green's Theorem
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With the full power of Green's theorem at your disposal, transform difficult line integrals quickly and efficiently into more approachable double integrals. Then, learn an alternative form of Green's theorem that generalizes to some important upcoming theorems.
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What does the second derivative reveal about a graph? It describes how the curve bends, whether it is concave upward or downward. Determine concavity much as you found the intervals where a graph was increasing or decreasing, except this time you'll use the second derivative.
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